A Broader Look at Motivation: From Instincts to Self-Actualization- Second Article in the Series

Why do organisms behave the way they do? Part of the answer lies in the concept of “instinct”: certain behaviors in a species are governed by pre-existing tendencies essential for their survival. Instincts provide a set of behaviors encoded in the genetic makeup of each organism.

For example, salmon swim thousands of kilometers to return to the exact stream where they hatched, leaping over waterfalls until they reach their spawning grounds. There, males and females perform mating rituals, fertilize the eggs, and then die. Later, the young fish swim downstream to live in the ocean until it’s their turn to repeat the cycle.

Similar dramatic behaviors are found across many species. Bees communicate food locations to others, army ants coordinate hunting expeditions, birds build nests, and spiders spin intricate webs- just like their ancestors did. Early theories about human behavior overemphasized the role of instincts. In 1890, William James suggested that humans, even more than animals, rely on instinctive behaviors. These include not only basic biological instincts, but also social ones like sympathy, modesty, sociability, and love.

Freud proposed that humans are driven by life instincts (including sexuality) and death instincts (including aggression). These instincts generate psychic energy aimed at satisfying physical needs, and when this energy is blocked, tension arises, motivating action to reduce it- even when operating below conscious awareness.

By the 1920s, psychologists had listed over 10,000 supposed human instincts. However, this approach was challenged by anthropologists like Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead, who found enormous cultural variations in behavior. Their observations refuted the universality of inborn instincts. Even more influential were behavioral studies showing that many important behaviors and emotions are learned rather than innate.

Humans and animals alike respond strongly to stimulus-response relationships in their environment. If one animal receives reinforcement for a behavior and another doesn’t, the first will likely continue the behavior. In this view, motivation is embedded in learning history. However, some behaviors are more easily learned due to species-specific instincts, meaning that both learned and instinctive behaviors influence actions.

To understand an animal’s behavior, we must know:

1. The evolutionary history of its species- what adaptive behaviors are hardwired.

2. The individual's personal history- its specific environmental experiences.

Expectations and the Cognitive Approach

Cognitive psychologists challenge the idea that instincts and reinforcement history alone explain behavior. Instead, they emphasize the role of thoughts and expectations.

Consider The Wizard of Oz as a metaphor for psychological motivation. Dorothy and her companions persist through many trials because they expect the wizard to grant them their desires. In the end, the wizard reveals that they had those qualities all along. Courage, intelligence, and emotion weren’t external gifts, but internal strengths expressed through their journey.

This illustrates how expectations motivate people. Our present actions are shaped by beliefs about past successes and failures, what we think we can achieve now, and the outcomes we expect in the future. Psychologist Julian Rotter’s Social Learning Theory emphasized that behavior is driven by:

• The expected outcome of an action.

• The personal value placed on that outcome.

If your behavior doesn’t align with your group’s standards, the desire to belong may push you to change. You might, for instance, alter your clothing or music preferences to better fit in. This internal drive is shaped by perceived gaps between your current reality and your expectations.

Psychologist Fritz Heider suggested that people attribute their successes or failures to either:

• Internal causes (e.g., effort or ability).

• External causes (e.g., unfair exams or biased teachers).

These attributions influence future motivation. If you believe you failed a test due to lack of effort, you may try harder next time. But if you blame it on injustice or lack of ability, you might give up. Motivation can therefore depend on how we interpret our experiences.

Summary of Motivation Sources

We began by distinguishing internal vs. external motivators. Drives, instincts, and learning histories are internal sources that interact with appropriate external stimuli. Once an organism becomes aware of its actions- something humans do more than any other species- expectations about what should happen also begin to drive motivation. Thinking creatures can attribute motivation to themselves or to the world around them.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

To offer a more general framework, we turn to Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. According to Maslow (a humanistic psychologist), motivation follows a structured sequence, from primitive to advanced needs. Each level must be reasonably satisfied before progressing to the next:

1. Physiological needs – Hunger, thirst, sleep.

2. Safety needs – Physical and emotional security.

3. Belongingness and love – Friendship, intimacy, family.

4. Esteem needs – Self-respect, recognition, competence.

5. Self-actualization – Fulfilling personal potential, creativity, authenticity.

A self-actualized person is self-aware, accepting, socially responsive, creative, spontaneous, and open to new experiences.

Maslow’s theory presents a notably optimistic view of human motivation: each person has the potential to grow and self-fulfill. However, real-life exceptions abound- people often skip meals to help others, or take risks for self-esteem or ideals.

Still, the hierarchy helps organize and understand the different dimensions of our motivational experiences.

Amichai Levi is a consultant in the Peace of Home department at Hidabroot.