Jewish Life at Masada

Historical Background

Josephus Flavius recounts in his book 'Wars' one of the last events related to the Great Revolt of the Jews against the Romans at the end of the Second Temple period, the siege of Masada. His description of how Masada fell to the Romans has become, in modern times, a myth and a subject of admiration in Israeli historical memory. The towering rock formation, rising 400 meters above the Dead Sea, has become a modern symbol of unwavering resistance against enemies, even to the point of suicide.

The history of Masada is mentioned only in Josephus's writings 'Wars' and 'Antiquities'. In one place, it is stated that Jonathan the High Priest was the first to build a fortress there. Elsewhere, the construction of the fortress is attributed to ancient kings. According to 'Wars', Herod built Masada as a place of refuge for himself. After the year 66 CE, Eleazar ben Yair fled to Masada and led its population until 73 CE. In 72 CE, the Roman siege of Masada began, led by the governor Flavius Silva and the Tenth Legion, auxiliary forces, and thousands of Jewish prisoners. Josephus learned of the tragic end of the defenders of Masada from two women found hiding in one of the nearby caves after the fighting.

Whether Josephus's account of the events on the mountain has a factual basis or not, no reference to this story is found in the writings of the sages. In the 'Sea' of the Talmud, which contains references to almost everything existing on earth and even heavenly bodies, there is no mention of this story.

In the context of the destruction events, there are references to different events. For example, the story of four hundred children and youth taken to Rome on a ship, choosing to jump into the sea rather than face the disgraceful lives awaiting them. The conclusion of our sages was that the wise did not approve of the act at Masada, if it indeed happened as described.

Archaeological Research

Following several surveys conducted at Masada and its surroundings during the past century, an archaeological excavation was also carried out from 1963 to 1965, led by Y. Yadin. The excavation revealed Masada's water works, drainage systems, cisterns, walls, towers, gates, storage facilities, and royal palaces dating back to Herod's time.

Relevant finds from the years of the revolt (66 to 73 CE): In the lower level of the northern palace, a thick layer of ash was found, along with several coins from the time of the revolt and large quantities of olive and date pits. Under the debris covering a small bathhouse, the remains of three skeletons—a man, a woman, and a child—were found near ostraca (pieces of pottery), fragments of *tallit*, copper armor scales coated in silver in large numbers, and dozens of arrows.

Near the woman's skeleton, her skull with braids was found, as well as her sandals. Researchers hypothesize that these were the remains of an important commander and his family. In the western palace, beneath the remains of a massive fire, hundreds of burnt arrows were found along with dozens of coins from the time of the revolt and several ostraca with what appear to be names—possibly of priests.

In one of the smaller palaces, which served the families of Masada defenders, glassware, food remains including large piles of dates, and weaponry were found. Transformations were made in the building to create mikvaot and other bathing pools. In a storage room, a group of special jars for wine or oil was discovered.

The jars were marked with a large letter tav; researchers suggest these were vessels for tithes and offerings. In the warehouse of the western palace, vessels with Hebrew inscriptions 'fig cake', 'fine pressed fig cake', 'dried figs' were stored. The wall and tower rooms served as living quarters for the defenders' families. Artifacts, clothes, leather and wickerwork, glass and stone artifacts, bronze tools, and more were found.

Hundreds of coins, in hoards and scattered, were found during the excavation. Over 700 ostraca with letters or name lists were also found. The defenders of Masada built mikvaot, a synagogue, and possibly a study house.

The Mikvaot

Two halachic mikvaot were discovered at each end of the site. Rainwater was channeled into the mikvaot. The southern mikvah—built in one of the wall rooms—consisted of three plastered pools, with steps in its large pool where rainwater was collected via a channel from the roof. There was a sedimentation pit to settle the mud between the channel and the pool. A smaller pool served for immersion, with two steps.

The pools were connected by a finger-width hole (I learned from Rabbi Baruch that, according to halacha, this hole at the bottom of the pit connects the water quantities of the two pools for calculating 40 se'ah). A smaller pool placed before the immersion pool was for washing the body before immersion. Dressing rooms were nearby. In the northern mikvah, three pools and a water drainage system were found.

The Study House(?)

A public building, established during the revolt, essentially an elongated hall with a built-in bench along its three walls. A narrow and long bench was built in the middle of the room. Researchers propose this building served as a study house.

The Synagogue

Built during the revolt, one of the few used before the Second Temple's destruction, whose remnants were found in the land. Its orientation is towards Jerusalem, to the northwest. The column arrangement is similar to those in Galilean synagogues. On a side room floor, a thick layer of ash was found containing glass and bronze artifact remains. On three of its walls, there are four plastered benches, one above the other.

In a corner of the building, an ostracon with the inscription 'tithe of a priest' was found. Below the floor, fragments of two scrolls were found buried in pits. The fragments, from the books of Deuteronomy and Ezekiel. In the wall north of the synagogue, in a layer of ash, remnants of wood, coins (shekels), and scroll fragments were discovered.

Fragments of Scrolls

Remains of 14 scrolls were discovered in different places, some Biblical: Psalms, Genesis, Leviticus, Deuteronomy, and Ezekiel. Fragments also included apocryphal literature and sectarian scrolls: Ben Sira, Jubilees, Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifices, and various unidentified pieces.

The Ostraca

Over 700 ostraca (pieces of pottery) were found at Masada. Most are written in Hebrew or Aramaic, and a few in Greek and Latin. From the inscriptions, one can learn about the organization of life at Masada and the national and religious character of its defenders. The ostraca include letter slips, unique name slips, single-name slips, name lists, inscriptions noting tithes, a letter (its subject—payment of money), and the 'lots': 11 small ostraca written in the same handwriting, each with only one name. The names appear to be nicknames (e.g., Bani Yair). These might be the lots Josephus mentions, dealing with casting lots among the last defenders for who would kill their comrades and then himself.

Signs of Siege and Garrison

Records of the effort the Romans invested in conquering Masada are still visible around the mountain: the siege wall, assault ramp, and Roman army camps. An interesting point regarding participants in the siege is clarified by the considerable presence of Nabatean pottery (bowls) found both in the army camps around the mountain and on the mountain itself, likely from the garrison's stay after the conquest. As the sages informed us about the active participation of neighboring nations in the Roman army's conquest and destruction campaign in Israel and Judea.

The Defenders of Masada

During the years of the revolt, before the Roman forces reached Masada, groups of Jews with their families gathered at the mountain fortress. According to one opinion, Masada's population was slightly less than a thousand men, women, and children. Against the backdrop of the destruction and disaster for the Jews in this war, views on the fulfillment of the prophets' words about the approaching great day of judgment also prevailed.

The sword survivors who arrived at Masada were already desperate upon arrival, evidenced by fragments of apocryphal and sectarian literature found there. Nonetheless, the defenders of Masada led Jewish lives. This is clear from the remains found at the site: mikvaot, the synagogue, fragments of Biblical scrolls, etc., they lived and died as believing Jews.