After the Prophet: The Struggles of Muhammad's Successors and the Jews

Before Muhammad, the Arabian tribes were embroiled in constant conflict. New alliances replaced ancient feuds, and old understandings crumbled under new betrayals. Muhammad dreamed of uniting all the tribes under Islam as one nation, spreading his teachings across the world. During his life, he fought to realize this vision, unifying nearly all the Arabian Peninsula under Islam. But after his death, he left neither heir nor guiding book, just fragmented tribes and numerous contradictory quotes. It became evident that the union was not for Islam itself, but rather for Muhammad. Some tribes were willing to remain Muslim but desired autonomy, arguing that Muhammad, as "the last prophet," legitimized no successor. Others believed their allegiance was solely to Muhammad, not Islam as a whole.

Muhammad's successors watched his life's work unraveling. Omar ibn Al-Khattab, a prominent Muslim, swore allegiance to Abu Bakr, Muhammad's father-in-law and closest companion, declaring him the first "Caliph." Following Omar's lead, Muhammad's followers pledged loyalty to Abu Bakr, who then fought the "Wars of Apostasy" against seceding tribes and later conquered regions in Syria and Iraq. The Caliphs quickly overcame powerful empires like the Byzantine and Sassanian, seizing vast territories greater than the Roman Empire, stretching from India to Spain.

During this time, the Jewish community in Ashkenaz was almost nonexistent, with most Jews living in the Muslim Empire's territories. The spiritual heart of Judaism was in the Babylonian yeshivas, where Jewish scholars thrived and spread Torah worldwide. Muslims needed a framework for their treatment of Jews and Christians, seen as adherents of the "Book." Since they believed in one God and held the Bible, Muhammad did not consider them idolaters. The Quran refers to the "People of the Book" as follows: "those who do not hold the true religion must pay the jizya with humility." This inspired the Caliphs to create the "dhimmi" concept, requiring non-Muslims to pay a tax for retaining their faith, emphasizing their subordination.

The dhimmi status was further solidified in the "Pact of Omar," which detailed rules for treating dhimmis. These rules included barring Jews from public religious rituals, horse or camel riding, and constructing synagogues taller than mosques. Thus, Jews were persistently reminded of their inferior status to Muslims. Jizya persisted into the 20th century, alongside other restrictions. In some Islamic regions, Jews lived in ghettos. In Morocco, these were called "mellah," where Jews were confined at night. In Yemen, in Sana'a, Jews lived in "Qa'a al-Yahud," translating to "the Jews' valley," resembling a ghetto.

This marked the third encounter between Ishmael and Isaac, with Ishmael asserting dominance over Isaac through power, yet avoiding the hatred Esau held for Jacob. Pogroms in Islamic lands were rare. This phase continued for about 1300 years until Zionism emerged, initiating a new era.