After the Prophet: How Early Islam Treated the Jews

Before Muhammad, the Arabian tribes were locked in cycles of constant conflict. Alliances formed and fell apart, and long-standing understandings were easily broken. Muhammad’s dream was to unite all the tribes under Islam as one nation, spreading its message across the world. During his lifetime, he worked to make that vision a reality, eventually bringing nearly the entire Arabian Peninsula under Islamic control.

But when Muhammad died, he left no appointed heir and no guiding book to settle disputes, only fragmented tribes and contradictory sayings attributed to him. It soon became clear that the unity had been built around Muhammad himself rather than Islam as a whole. Some tribes were willing to remain Muslim but wanted independence, saying that with Muhammad as “the last prophet,” no one could claim legitimate leadership after him. Others felt their loyalty had been to Muhammad personally, not to the religion.

In the power vacuum, Omar ibn Al-Khattab, one of Muhammad’s close companions, pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law and confidant, declaring him the first Caliph (successor). Following Omar’s example, others accepted Abu Bakr’s leadership. As Caliph, Abu Bakr waged the “Wars of Apostasy” against tribes that tried to break away. Under him and later Caliphs, Muslim armies expanded rapidly, conquering Syria, Iraq, and beyond. Within a short time, the Caliphate had overcome mighty empires like the Byzantine and Sassanian, ruling territory greater than the ancient Roman Empire, stretching from India to Spain.

At that time, the Jewish community in Europe (Ashkenaz) was still very small. Most Jews lived under Muslim rule, with the great centers of Torah learning based in the Babylonian yeshivot (academies). From there, Jewish scholarship thrived and Torah learning spread across the world.

The Muslims needed a system for dealing with Jews and Christians, whom they saw as “People of the Book”, believers in one God and followers of the Bible. Muhammad did not consider them idolaters. The Quran refers to these communities, saying that those who do not follow Islam “must pay the jizya with humility.” This tax became the basis for the dhimmi system, in which non-Muslims could keep their faith but had to pay for the privilege and accept a position of subordination.

The dhimmi status was formally detailed in the Pact of Omar. The pact imposed various restrictions: Jews could not hold public religious ceremonies, ride horses or camels, or build synagogues taller than mosques. These rules were constant reminders of their lower legal and social standing. The jizya tax and other restrictions remained in place in many Muslim lands well into the 20th century. In some regions, Jews were confined to specific quarters. In Morocco, these were called mellah, where Jews were locked in at night. In Yemen’s capital, Sana’a, Jews lived in Qa’a al-Yahud, “the Jews’ valley” — which functioned much like a ghetto.

This long chapter in history could be seen as the “third meeting” between Ishmael and Isaac: Ishmael held power over Isaac, but without the deep, violent hatred that Esau had for Jacob. Pogroms, organized massacres were rare in Islamic lands, and Jewish communities often lived in relative safety compared to their brethren in Christian Europe. This situation continued for about 1,300 years, until the rise of Zionism marked the beginning of a new era in Jewish history.