The Jewish Struggle: Emancipation Dreams and the Reality of Anti-Semitism in Europe

Life for Jews in Muslim countries was relatively comfortable compared to the experiences of Jews in Europe. Unlike in Europe, where Jews faced constant pogroms and expulsions, Jews in Islamic countries lived in a sort of status quo where they paid the jizya, bowed to Islam, but were not forced to convert or die, nor convert or leave their cities. This all suddenly changed in modern times.

In the 18th century, a new wind blew across Europe: the Enlightenment, which began to reevaluate the 'old world' to create a 'new,' enlightened, and advanced world. Part of these new ideas was a reexamination of society's attitude towards Judaism. For years, Jews hadn't been considered citizens and suffered numerous restrictions and decrees. They were offered 'emancipation,' equal citizenship in every respect, and the same status as their compatriots. For the first time, Jews living in France could be considered 'French,' and Jews in Germany – 'German.' Many Jews saw emancipation as redemption. There was no need to wait for the Messiah to redeem us from exile because today we are 'French in France.' The idea was that if Jews abandoned their peculiar customs, ate Gentile foods, and spoke their language, they could integrate into the French nation as full citizens. Such ideas were expressed not only by Jews but also by Gentiles. One of Germany's great playwrights, Lessing, wrote the play 'Nathan the Wise': a Jew named Nathan, who, when he adopts the principles of the Enlightenment and behaves morally and culturally, is equal to a German. The message Jews received was that when they behave properly, anti-Semitism would disappear, the persecutions would cease, and Jews would find peace and prosperity as French or Germans.

For a time, it seemed emancipation was working. Jews integrated well into European culture and secured key positions in Western Europe. They also ventured into politics. Jews had a strong attraction to politics, and Europe was filled with Jewish politicians. In Britain, one of the great Prime Ministers in the Empire's history, Benjamin Disraeli, was a baptized Jew. In Italy, three Jewish Prime Ministers served – Alessandro Fortis, Sidney Sonnino, and Luigi Luzzatti. Jews conquered global economics, German music, and poetry, yet it didn't help. In Germany, Jews were more German than the Germans, in France more French than the French, but it was in vain. Anti-Semitism didn't disappear; it simply changed its accusations. If Jews were once hated for their religion, for being money lenders or Christ-killers, today they are persecuted for their blood. They are characterized as usurers, traitors, a parasitic race polluting enlightened European culture. Under the guise of freedom of expression, newspapers filled with anti-Semitic articles, vile cartoons, and hatred towards Jews.

This phenomenon created the "Jewish Question." How is it possible that Jews remain Jews in their own eyes and those of their neighbors, even though there's no difference between them? They can fluently speak German and French, send their children to Christian schools and universities, act completely Gentile, and immerse themselves in European culture, yet they remain Jews and can't shed their 'curse.' In response to the Jewish Question, both Gentiles and subsequently assimilated Jews who desperately sought to blend into European culture suggested that Jews hadn't reformed themselves adequately. Assimilated Jews continuously tried to reform themselves, but to no avail. Anti-Semitism spread, and Europeans began to believe that Jews were a problematic race, one that shouldn't integrate into European culture, posing a danger necessitating strict measures to prevent them from harming the nations they resided in.

Jews in Europe began to feel increasingly alienated. It seemed that no matter how loyal they were to their host nations, nor how much they tried to reform themselves, they would still be seen as strangers and outsiders. In 1894, a spy scandal exploded in France: a letter was intercepted from a French officer to the German embassy proving a German spy had infiltrated the French general staff. The panicked French immediately blamed the only Jew on the general staff, Alfred Dreyfus, based on the flimsiest of evidence. It was claimed that although Dreyfus' handwriting differed from the incriminating letter, he forged the letter to cover himself in case he got caught. The French press celebrated, and anti-Semitic articles called for harsh measures against the 'traitorous' Jews.

Dreyfus was sentenced to exile and subjected to a humiliating ceremony where his military ranks were stripped. During this shameful ceremony, his epaulettes were torn from his uniform, his sword was broken, and he was humiliated in front of the French crowd that came to witness the traitorous Jew. The event was accompanied by cries of 'Jewish traitor' and 'death to Jews.'

The Dreyfus Affair was a significant event in the Jewish perspective on emancipation. The notion that there was no answer to anti-Semitism in Europe began to widely spread and took root in Jewish hearts.