The Struggle for Acceptance: Early Jewish Life in Medieval France

At the onset of the Carolingian dynasty in the Frankish Kingdom, Jews found themselves in a favorable position. Church efforts to attack them repeatedly failed.

With the passing of Charlemagne, his son Louis the Pious—renowned for his kindness—took the throne. Louis extended his goodwill to the Jewish community, appointing a special official known as the "Minister of Jewish Affairs" to oversee their rights. This official, named Eberhard, became the point of contact for Jews who felt wronged.

Empress Judith of Bavaria was also a notable ally. A prominent writer of the era even penned a poem likening her to the biblical Esther and Judith. Louis and Judith allowed Jews to freely express themselves and publish books, unsettling the church as it thrived on silencing dissent and distorting sacred texts. When Jews could openly point out these absurdities, the Christian faith felt threatened.

During this period, Jewish influence grew as many Christians preferred synagogue sermons over church ones. Clergy, feeling threatened, were justified in their concern. Remarkably, even the king's deacon embraced Judaism and converted.

Bishop Agobard of Lyon was a leading adversary of the Jews. He once baptized a servant girl who had been in a Jewish home, prompting a legal backlash. Defeated in court and forced to compensate for his illegal actions, Agobard's hatred for Jews intensified, prompting him to petition King Louis's officials with slanderous letters aimed at curbing Jewish freedoms.

Yet, King Louis dismissed Agobard's grievances. Instead, he tried Agobard for contempt of court. Embarrassed but undeterred, Agobard continued his defamatory campaign. Portraying Jews as conspirators, he falsely claimed they cursed the king and his court. Nevertheless, the emperor remained unperturbed, issuing protective letters for Jews and warning bishops against following Agobard.

Realizing his deceit failed, Agobard joined a plot against Empress Judith, aspiring for her murder. However, his religious stature saved him from execution; instead, he was exiled to Italy, ceasing his anti-Jewish endeavors in the Frankish domain.

Following Louis's death, his empire was divided among his sons. In France, under Lothair I, Jewish rights quickly dissolved under pressure from malicious clergy. Here began a long-standing tradition of antisemitic laws in Europe, lasting into the 19th century: bans on land ownership, job restrictions, hefty taxes, and continued suspicions of desecrating Christian holy events. In Germany, Louis the German showed initial kindness, but pervasive Christian norms ultimately ended the Jews' brief Golden Age in Europe. For the next millennium, Jews focused on spirituality and Torah scholarship amid perpetual economic and social hardships.